Evaluating the Economics of Urban Sanitation: A Life Cycle Perspective from Africa and Asia

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Published: 25th September 2025 in Example Dissertation Introductions

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Introduction

1.1. Background research

Basic sanitation involves facilities serving the safe disposal of human waste and services to ensure hygienic living, including garbage collection, hazardous and industrial waste, and wastewater treatment. Sanitation is central to survival, health, and income generation and socio economic development. Nevertheless, millions of people still have no access to sanitation services. Globally, an estimated 2.5 billion people more than 35% of the population lack adequate sanitation (Mara, 2012). An absence of basic sanitation is estimated to contribute to nearly 10% of the disease burden worldwide (Mara et al., 2010).

But sanitation is more than just building toilets. Sanitation indicates the development of a safe, hygienic environment that is valued by the local community for themselves and for others. In raising awareness and changing behavior, the community reduces practices such as open defecation (Burgers, 2000). In countries where the scope of sanitation is limited, managing waste at the household level is both critical and challenging (Pearson & McPhedran, 2007).

Waste is a natural phenomenon that will build up to unsanitary conditions globally for people who reside in a place. Improved sanitation and hygiene attempts have historically resulted in a recorded decrease in incidence of disease, but in reality, many people do not have access to safe waste disposal systems. This can lead to un-hygienic conditions, especially for vulnerable people the elderly, children, and immuno-compromised people among others in densely packed populations. Accumulation of waste, as poor environmental sanitation/hygiene contributes to the ecosystem causing environmental degradation (Strande, 2006). Yet in 2015, only 59% of the population globally had improved sanitation which means 4 out of 10 people relied on unsafe sanitation systems or open dedication; indeed, while improved sanitation increased from 49% in 1990, the goal of 75% MDG. The problem of sanitation is dire most severely in many parts of sub Saharan Africa (37%), Southern Asia (38%) and Eastern Asia (45%) and regions (World Health Organisation, 2015).

In South Africa, there are no identified gaps in service despite achieving MDG sanitation goals, particularly in the rural and informal areas of the country. Delivery has stalled with 11% of households without a basic sanitation service, and 26% of households with service degradation; there is also lack of technical skill, poor maintenance and planning for desludging, and limited water supply access to deal with sanitation service issues. About 3.2 million households are at risk of sanitation service failure (approximately 26%) (SAHRC, 2012; Water and Sanitation Program, 2015).

In urban India, investments have emphasized conventional sewerage while community and household toilets for the lower-income segment of the population have received little attention. This has not enabled a safe environment for all parts of society (Government of India & Water and Sanitation Program South Asia, 2008). In Mumbai, three-quarters of slum residents go to public toilets, with 6% remaining with open defecation (Water and Sanitation Program, 2006). While India has reduced open defecation by 31% since 1990, the degree of open defecation is rampant compared to its neighbours (Bangladesh, Nepal, and even Pakistan have made significant process alike) (UNICEF & WHO, 2015).

1.1 Health Implications

A key reason for infectious disease spread is poor sanitation. Human excreta transport infectious agents that can cause human waste diseases in humans including cholera, typhoid, hepatitis, polio, ascariasis, and cryptosporidiosis. Diarrheal diseases result in the death of nearly 1.8 million people per year, with approximately 90 percent of all deaths occurring in children 5 years of age or younger (WHO 2008). Open defecation not only breeds flies and contaminates water resources, but it also contributes greatly to the spread of pathogens (Prüss et al, 2002).

Parasitic infections may be more closely associated with sanitation. Schistosomiasis is the second greatest worldwide public health burden after malaria, affecting greater than 200 million individuals in 74 countries. Over 20 million people are afflicted with severe manifestations of the disease (Prüss et al, 2002). Ascariasis is one of the most distributed of all parasitic diseases, with approximately 10% of populations in developing countries affected, and responsible for around 60,000 deaths each year, mainly of children (Fewtrell et al, 2007). Trematode infections, which occur in parts of Asia, occur because of applying untreated human faecal matter to crops, or aquacolonization through the discharge of untreated sewage that contaminates water, fish, shellfish, and aquatic plants eaten by humans (WHO, 2016a).

Trachoma, the leading preventable cause of blindness in the world, is another sanitation related disease. Poor sanitation increases fly populations and facilitates transmission of diseases. Lack of clean water and low sanitation awareness makes the situation worse. Trachoma has caused irreversible blindness in approximately 6 million people in the world (WHO, 2016c).

1.2 Sanitation Systems

Sanitation systems can be broadly categorized into either on-site or off-site systems.

1.2.1 On-site Systems

On-site systems treat or store waste at the source. These categories are applicable in low density areas, including ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines, pour flush toilets, compost latrines, and septic tanks (Stenström et al. 2011). There is also the choice of eco sanitation (dry sanitation) which separates urine from faeces (Water and Sanitation Program, 2010). Generally, these systems are inexpensive and simple to use, although they may require off-site sludge treatment. Some systems like the Arborloowill allow waste to be converted to fertilizer after pathogen reduction (Morgan, 2007).

1.2.2 Off-site Systems

Off-site systems transport waste away from the point of generation and utilise sewerage networks for transport to treatment plants. They are suited for densely populated urban areas but require substantial infrastructure, and very large amounts of water. Conventional sewerage is approximately 70 times more expensive than on-site systems and is unsuitable for low income and/or water-scarce areas (Mara et al., 2007). Small-diameter gravity sewers, vacuums sewers, and simplified systems, have been successful in countries such as Brazil and Ghana (WHO, 2016b).

1.3 Selecting the Appropriate Sanitation System

The decision of a sanitation system is contingent upon local infrastructure, density of population, and water supply. Off-site systems are more hygienic and convenient but cost money to construct, operate, and maintain. On-site systems are less expensive and easier to manage but typically are more appropriate for sparsely populated areas. Common on-site systems include VIP latrines, pour flush toilets, septic tanks, and composting systems (Stenström et al., 2011). Each of these systems comes with their respective advantages and disadvantages that are context specific. For instance:
• VIP latrines have reduced odors and fly breeding compared to traditional pit latrines (Mara, 2006).
• Pour flush toilets contain water but typically use less than a cistern flush system and, therefore represent potentially less clogging risk. They are low-cost and usually need little to no maintenance (Mara, 2006).
Ultimately, how suitable a system depends on the context of demographics, environment, and culture.

1.4 Study Area Background

Tiruchirapalli, the fourth largest on Tamil Nadu, is located on the banks of the River Cauvery on Chennai–Dindigul National Highway (NH-45). There are 8 taluks, 14 blocks, 408 panchayat villages and 1,590 villages in the district, which are composed of Srirangam, Manapparai, Ponmalai, Thuraiyur and some municipalities. The population of Tiruchirapalli as of 2001 consisted of 826,060, and the literacy rate was recorded at 91.45% (Tamil Nadu Urban Infrastructure Financial Services Limited, 2007). Srirangam, the main scope of this project study, has a population of 267,687 and sprawls over an area of 27.03 sq. km. Srirangam municipality is mainly sandy and silt based, with a high-water table (Suresh, 2008). The field visit indicated that there are no piped water or sanitation in most of the 1,600 households. The open drains that first designed to draining stormwater are utilized for discharging waste, which resulted in recurrent blockage. Waste is directly discharged into the River Cauvery which provides the drinking water supply in Tiruchirapalli with no proper treatment process, thus alarming sanitary risks. Certain households used septic tanks but desludged poorly and costly (D’Souza et al., 2009). Only 10% of sewage is treated; the remaining 90% flows untreated into the river. With household sewage generation estimated at 21 MLD, the Panjapur treatment plant processes just 9.4% of the total. Consequently, waterborne disease outbreaks such as gastroenteritis are common (Jamwal et al., 2015a).

1.5 Problem Statement

Presently, Srirangam has an open drainage system that was introduced there in 2003. As it pertains to Srirangam, the attempts at underground sewers were rejected due to religious considerations as well as due to concerns about aesthetics, especially around the temple areas (where any buried pipes were viewed as a disruption to ceremonial routes). Future consideration in regard of open drains became the default solution (AASHTO, 2005). Open drainage systems are relatively cheap and simple to build; however, they present unique health risks because they expose the community directly to sewage and solid waste. Given the health risks associated with open drain systems, and having modern systems available that have been shown to be safer, the community should and consider adopting a sustainable sanitation system in Srirangam and neighboring areas.

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